•
Nessie
【ˈnesɪ】
英:
美:
n.
<口>(英国苏格兰北部的)尼斯湖水怪
1 、But
Nessie
isnt just an icon of the paranormal -- shes also an emblem of Scottish tourism.───尼斯湖位于英国苏格兰高原北部的大峡谷中,地处偏远,地形崎岖,两岸陡峭,是英国最大淡水湖。
2 、ECRYPT is a four years information security project with wider scope,which was launched by Europe after NESSIE.───ECRYPT是继NESSIE之后欧洲启动的一个规模更大,为期四年的信息安全项目。
3 、Idea 3: Mark and Kathleen manage to convince the hunters that
Nessie
doesnt exist! How do they do this? What happens next?───想法三:马克和凯萨琳成功地说服猎人尼西并不存在!他们是怎麽做到的?后来发生了什麽事?
4 、Sir Curt Godfreyof the
Nessie
Alliance...───保护尼斯湖怪物联盟的Curt Godfrey先生...
5 、Idea 2: The hunters catch
Nessie
! Do Mark and Kathleen rescue it? How do they do it?───想法二:猎人抓到尼西了!马克和凯萨琳会去救她吗?他们会怎麽做?
6 、More than one slippery creature is said to be living in Loch
Nessie
.───据说尼斯湖里有不止一个令人难以捉摸的动物。
7 、To fuel the debate about the monster,perhaps also curiosity about the lake, a price of 500,000 pounds sterling has been put on
Nessie
s head.───如今它头上有五十万英镑的悬赏,使得学术界的争论日益激烈,或许也会令游人的好奇日盛吧。
8 、
Nessie
, Nessy───尼斯湖水怪兽
9 、They are Lamb, Tong, Vanvi, Diana and
Nessie
.───废话少说,先把五个人点名。
10 、Most scientists agree that
Nessie
is neither a whale nor a shark.───大多数科学家一致认为"尼西"既不是鲸,也不是鲨鱼。
11 、The Monster In Loch
Nessie
───尼斯湖怪兽
12 、Although no evidence exists to suggest the alleged creatures sex, the nickname "
Nessie
" sounds feminine, so the creature is often referred to as female.───虽无证据证明其性别,“尼斯”这一昵称听上去还是有些偏女性,因此这个生物经常作为雌性引用。
13 、The original photo from 1933 of
Nessie
as the sea monster was called.The photo proved to be a fake.───但1933年尼斯湖怪的照片也信誓旦旦,最后证明,照片也是假的。
14 、Id go round to see
Nessie
to try to find out what was up, and shed beg me to persuade him to change his mind.───我会去看内茜,试图发现究竟怎么了,而她哀求我劝说他改变主意。
15 、This wave of "wild man", one can not help but think of in recent years increasingly fashionable new term: "The tourist economy," also reminds me of the famous British "
Nessie
", "mystery.───如此一波又一波的“野人”消息,让人不禁联想起近些年日渐时髦的新名词:“旅游经济”,还想起当年著名的英国“尼斯湖怪”之“谜”。
16 、The couple did not claim to have seen
Nessie
; instead others later assumed it must have been the creature and count it as a monster sighting.───但是这对夫妇并未声称他们看到的是尼斯湖水怪;而是后来其他人推测它应该就是水怪,将其视为一桩水怪目击事件。
17 、Jason told the Sun: `I couldn`t believe it. It`s just like the descriptions of
Nessie
.───库克在接受媒体采访时表示:“我真的不敢相信自己的眼睛。这个东西与有关尼斯湖水怪的描述一模一样。”
18 、I employ Sulloways maxim every time I encounter Bigfoot hunters and
Nessie
seekers.───每当我遇上寻找大脚或妮西的人时,就提出萨洛威的箴言。
19 、
Nessie
enthusiasts believe the creature is a plesiosaur - an aquatic reptile that appeared at the start of the Jurassic period and is widely believed to be extinct.───尼斯湖水怪迷认为,这种动物应该是一种蛇颈龙。蛇颈龙是一种水生爬行动物,生活在侏罗纪初期,很多人认为它们早已灭绝。
20 、My nickname is
Nessie
and people have been hunting me for generations.───我的昵称是尼斯湖水怪和人民一直狩猎我的后代。
21 、SAFER++ is selected for further evaluation in NESSIE second phase. A technique which connects differential cryptanalysis and nonlinear cryptanalysis is used to attack 4,5 and 6 rounds of SAFER++.───SAFER + +是进入NESSIE第 2轮评估的 7个分组算法之一 采用差分密码分析和非线性密码分析相结合的方法对 4轮、5轮和 6轮SAFER + +进行分析 ,结果表明 :6轮SAFER + +对这种攻击方法不免疫 ;
22 、Even close family members, taken reverently into the “
Nessie
room” in his Boston apartment or instructed never to be without cameras on Scottish holidays, could not quite understand his obsession.───他的家庭成员或是恭敬地参观了他位于波士顿公寓的“尼斯湖水怪工作室”,或被要求苏格兰度假时必须带上摄像机,但他们也无法完全了解他的痴迷。
23 、
Nessie
, my fave mystery! But I also love mermaids, think I can catch you and your pal?───美女3你总算回复了,我还以为你们对大自然的未知生物不感兴趣呢!
24 、After a near fatal encounter with "
Nessie
" 30 years earlier, James Murphy believes he has finally tracked the creature across the globe to Lake superior.───30多年前,梅詹仕在一次意外中差点丧命,而在迷糊间竟看到像如同尼斯湖水怪一般的迷之生物。
25 、How did
Nessie
get into Loch
Nessie
?───"尼西"是怎么进入尼斯湖的呢?
26 、Idea 1: Kathleen manages to save
Nessie
from the hunters. How does she do it? How does
Nessie
thank her?───想法一:凯萨琳成功地让尼西躲开猎人之手。她是怎麽做到的?尼西会怎麽感谢她?
27 、NESSIE project───NESSIE计划
28 、To fuel the debate about the monster, and perhaps also curiosity about the lake, a price of 500,000 pounds sterling has been put on
Nessie
s head───如今它头上有50万英镑的悬赏,更使得有关它的争论热烈起来,或许也会令游人对该湖的好奇日盛吧。
29 、But 1,500 years since the first reported sighting, the mystery of
Nessie
is bigger than ever.───又会访问目击者,了解他们眼中的尼斯湖水怪面貌及出没情形。
30 、The 128-bit blick encryption algorithm Camellia is an NESSIE chosen al gorithm by Japanese cryptographers Shiho Moriai and Mitsuru Matsui.───Camellia算法是NESSIE选择的一个128bit的分组加密算法,它与AES一起作为欧洲的加密标准。
31 、SAFER++ is submitted to the European pre-standardization project NESSIE and is one of the seven primitives-selected for the second phase of this project.───是欧洲信息工程的参选算法,并且是进入第2轮的7个候选算法之一。
32 、More than one slippery creature is said to be living in Loch
Nessie
【1】【2】. In any case, people have reported seeing a humped "what-is-it" for over 30 years.───据说尼斯湖里有不止一个令人难以捉摸的动物。不管怎么说,30年来一直不断有人报导见到了一个有驼峰般隆起的背部的"不知是什么"的动物。
33 、3 - Why does
Nessie
rarely surface?───3 -为何尼斯湖水怪很少表面?
34 、"As the most popular tourist attraction in Scotland,
Nessie
s influence on the cash flow of that country has been significant," wrote the authors of "The 101 most influential people who never lived.───作者在书中解释道:“尼斯湖是苏格兰最受欢迎的旅游景点,它对大量资金流入当地具有举足轻重的作用。”
35 、As the most popular tourist attraction in Scotland,
Nessie
s influence on the cash flow of that country has been significant,"wrote the authors of "───尼斯湖是苏格兰最受欢迎的旅游景点,它对大量资金流入当地具有举足轻重的作用。
36 、On Current Development of NESSIE Block Cipher Candidates───简评欧洲密码大计划的发展现状
37 、Is it real or imaginary, this monster, which has been nicknamed
Nessie
, has collected a good 3000 sightings over the last 50 years?───真假姑且不论,这个昵称尼西的怪兽在过去的半个世纪中已经吸引了3000余名游客。
38 、To fuel the debate about the monster, and perhaps also curiosity about the lake, a price of 500,000 pounds sterling has been put on
Nessie
s head.───苏格兰人似乎生来就就喜欢与神秘事物生活在一起,笃信超自然的力量,因此才有了这些世代相传的传说和幽灵。
39 、In response to the obligatory next question, he reports that the famous "
Nessie
" is a beautiful soul, really quite personable and fond of chocolates.───在回应的强制性接下来的问题,他报告说,著名的“尼斯湖水怪”是一个美丽的灵魂,实在personable和喜欢巧克力。
40 、
Nessie
is usually categorized as a type of lake monster.───尼斯湖水怪通常被认为是一种湖中的怪物。
41 、The couple did not claim to have seen
Nessie
;───但是这对夫妇并未声称他们看到的是尼斯湖水怪;
42 、"As the most popular tourist attraction in Scotland,
Nessie
s influence on the cash flow of that country has been significant," wrote the authors of "The 101 most influential people who never lived.───他们的影响无处不在,从人们的衣食住行到言谈举止,甚至影响了历史进程,但他们在现实生活中并不存在。
密码学的学科分类
Autokey密码
置换密码
二字母组代替密码 (by Charles Wheatstone)
多字母替换密码
希尔密码
维吉尼亚密码
替换式密码
凯撒密码
摩尔斯电码
ROT13
仿射密码
Atbash密码
换位密码
Scytale
Grille密码
VIC密码 (一种复杂的手工密码,在五十年代早期被至少一名苏联**使用过,在当时是十分安全的)
流密码
LFSR流密码
EIGamal密码
RSA密码
对传统密码学的攻击
频率分析
重合指数
经典密码学
在近代以前,密码学只考虑到信息的机密性(confidentiality):如何将可理解的信息转换成难以理解的信息,并且使得有秘密信息的人能够逆向回复,但缺乏秘密信息的**者或**者则无法解读。近数十年来,这个领域已经扩展到涵盖身分认证(或称鉴权)、信息完整性检查、数字签名、互动证明、安全多方计算等各类技术。
古中国周朝兵书《六韬.龙韬》也记载了密码学的运用,其中的《阴符》和《阴书》便记载了周武王问姜子牙关于征战时与主将通讯的方式: 太公曰:“主与将,有阴符,凡八等。有大胜克敌之符,长一尺。破军擒将之符,长九寸。降城得邑之符,长八寸。却敌报远之符,长七寸。警众坚守之符,长六寸。请粮益兵之符,长五寸。败军亡将之符,长四寸。失利亡士之符,长三寸。诸奉使行符,稽留,若符事闻,泄告者,皆诛之。八符者,主将秘闻,所以阴通言语,不泄中外相知之术。敌虽圣智,莫之能识。”
武王问太公曰:“… 符不能明;相去辽远,言语不通。为之奈何?”
太公曰:“诸有阴事大虑,当用书,不用符。主以书遗将,将以书问主。书皆一合而再离,三发而一知。再离者,分书为三部。三发而一知者,言三人,人操一分,相参而不相知情也。此谓阴书。敌虽圣智,莫之能识。” 阴符是以八等长度的符来表达不同的消息和指令,可算是密码学中的替代法(en:substitution),把信息转变成敌人看不懂的符号。至于阴书则运用了移位法,把书一分为三,分三人传递,要把三份书重新拼合才能获得还原的信息。
除了应用于军事外,公元四世纪婆罗门学者伐蹉衍那(en:Vatsyayana) 所书的《欲经》4 中曾提及到用代替法加密信息。书中第45项是秘密书信(en:mlecchita-vikalpa) ,用以帮助妇女隐瞒她们与爱郞之间的关系。其中一种方法是把字母随意配对互换,如套用在罗马字母中,可有得出下表: A B C D E F G H I J K L M Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N 由经典加密法产生的密码文很容易泄漏关于明文的统计信息,以现代观点其实很容易被破解。阿拉伯人津帝(en:al-Kindi)便提及到如果要破解加密信息,可在一篇至少一页长的文章中数算出每个字母出现的频率,在加密信件中也数算出每个符号的频率,然后互相对换,这是频率分析的前身,此后几乎所有此类的密码都马上被破解。但经典密码学仍未消失,经常出现在谜语之中(见en:cryptogram)。这种分析法除了被用在破解密码法外,也常用于考古学上。在破解古埃及象形文字(en:Hieroglyphs)时便运用了这种解密法。 标准机构
the Federal Information Processing Standards Publication program (run by NIST to produce standards in many areas to guide operations of the US Federal government; many FIPS Pubs are cryptography related,ongoing)
the ANSI standardization process (produces many standards in many areas; some are cryptography related,ongoing)
ISO standardization process (produces many standards in many areas; some are cryptography related,ongoing)
IEEE standardization process (produces many standards in many areas; some are cryptography related,ongoing)
IETF standardization process (produces many standards (called RFCs) in many areas; some are cryptography related,ongoing)
See Cryptography standards
加密组织
NSA internal evaluation/selections (surely extensive,nothing is publicly known of the process or its results for internal use; NSA is charged with assisting NIST in its cryptographic responsibilities)
GCHQ internal evaluation/selections (surely extensive,nothing is publicly known of the process or its results for GCHQ use; a division of GCHQ is charged with developing and recommending cryptographic standards for the UK government)
DSD Australian SIGINT agency - part of ECHELON
Communications Security Establishment (CSE) - Canadian intelligence agency.
努力成果
the DES selection (NBS selection process,ended 1976)
the RIPE division of the RACE project (sponsored by the European Union,ended mid-80s)
the AES competition (a break-off sponsored by NIST; ended 2001)
the NESSIE Project (evaluation/selection program sponsored by the European Union; ended 2002)
the CRYPTREC program (Japanese government sponsored evaluation/recommendation project; draft recommendations published 2003)
the Internet Engineering Task Force (technical body responsible for Internet standards -- the Request for Comment series: ongoing)
the CrypTool project (eLearning programme in English and German; freeware; exhaustive educational tool about cryptography and cryptanalysis)
加密散列函数 (消息摘要算法,MD算法)
加密散列函数
消息认证码
Keyed-hash message authentication code
EMAC (NESSIE selection MAC)
HMAC (NESSIE selection MAC; ISO/IEC 9797-1,FIPS and IETF RFC)
TTMAC 也称 Two-Track-MAC (NESSIE selection MAC; K.U.Leuven (Belgium) & debis AG (Germany))
UMAC (NESSIE selection MAC; Intel,UNevada Reno,IBM,Technion,& UCal Davis)
MD5 (系列消息摘要算法之一,由MIT的Ron Rivest教授提出; 128位摘要)
SHA-1 (NSA开发的160位摘要,FIPS标准之一;第一个发行发行版本被发现有缺陷而被该版本代替; NIST/NSA 已经发布了几个具有更长摘要长度的变种; CRYPTREC推荐 (limited))
SHA-256 (NESSIE 系列消息摘要算法,FIPS标准之一180-2,摘要长度256位 CRYPTREC recommendation)
SHA-384 (NESSIE 列消息摘要算法,FIPS标准之一180-2,摘要长度384位; CRYPTREC recommendation)
SHA-512 (NESSIE 列消息摘要算法,FIPS标准之一180-2,摘要长度512位; CRYPTREC recommendation)
RIPEMD-160 (在欧洲为 RIPE 项目开发,160位摘要;CRYPTREC 推荐 (limited))
Tiger (by Ross Anderson et al)
Snefru
Whirlpool (NESSIE selection hash function,Scopus Tecnologia S.A. (Brazil) & K.U.Leuven (Belgium))
公/私钥加密算法(也称 非对称性密钥算法)
ACE-KEM (NESSIE selection asymmetric encryption scheme; IBM Zurich Research)
ACE Encrypt
Chor-Rivest
Diffie-Hellman(key agreement; CRYPTREC 推荐)
El Gamal (离散对数)
ECC(椭圆曲线密码算法) (离散对数变种)
PSEC-KEM (NESSIE selection asymmetric encryption scheme; NTT (Japan); CRYPTREC recommendation only in DEM construction w/SEC1 parameters) )
ECIES (Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption System; Certicom Corp)
ECIES-KEM
ECDH (椭圆曲线Diffie-Hellman 密钥协议; CRYPTREC推荐)
EPOC
Merkle-Hellman (knapsack scheme)
McEliece
NTRUEncrypt
RSA (因数分解)
RSA-KEM (NESSIE selection asymmetric encryption scheme; ISO/IEC 18033-2 draft)
RSA-OAEP (CRYPTREC 推荐)
Rabin cryptosystem (因数分解)
Rabin-SAEP
HIME(R)
XTR
公/私钥签名算法
DSA(zh:数字签名;zh-tw:数位签章算法) (来自NSA,zh:数字签名;zh-tw:数位签章标准(DSS)的一部分; CRYPTREC 推荐)
Elliptic Curve DSA (NESSIE selection digital signature scheme; Certicom Corp); CRYPTREC recommendation as ANSI X9.62,SEC1)
Schnorr signatures
RSA签名
RSA-PSS (NESSIE selection digital signature scheme; RSA Laboratories); CRYPTREC recommendation)
RSASSA-PKCS1 v1.5 (CRYPTREC recommendation)
Nyberg-Rueppel signatures
MQV protocol
Gennaro-Halevi-Rabin signature scheme
Cramer-Shoup signature scheme
One-time signatures
Lamport signature scheme
Bos-Chaum signature scheme
Undeniable signatures
Chaum-van Antwerpen signature scheme
Fail-stop signatures
Ong-Schnorr-Shamir signature scheme
Birational permutation scheme
ESIGN
ESIGN-D
ESIGN-R
Direct anonymous attestation
NTRUSign用于移动设备的公钥加密算法,密钥比较短小但也能达到高密钥ECC的加密效果
SFLASH (NESSIE selection digital signature scheme (esp for smartcard applications and similar); Schlumberger (France))
Quartz
秘密钥算法 (也称 对称性密钥算法)
流密码
A5/1,A5/2 (GSM移动**标准中指定的密码标准)
BMGL
Chameleon
FISH (by Siemens AG)
二战Fish密码
Geheimfernschreiber (二战时期Siemens AG的机械式一次一密密码,被布莱奇利(Bletchley)庄园称为STURGEON)
Schlusselzusatz (二战时期 Lorenz的机械式一次一密密码,被布莱奇利(Bletchley)庄园称为【【tunny)
HELIX
ISAAC (作为伪随机数发生器使用)
Leviathan (cipher)
LILI-128
MUG1 (CRYPTREC 推荐使用)
MULTI-S01 (CRYPTREC 推荐使用)
一次一密 (Vernam and Mauborgne,patented mid-20s; an extreme stream cypher)
Panama
Pike (improvement on FISH by Ross Anderson)
RC4 (ARCFOUR) (one of a series by Prof Ron Rivest of MIT; CRYPTREC 推荐使用 (limited to 128-bit key))
CipherSaber (RC4 variant with 10 byte random IV,易于实现)
SEAL
SNOW
SOBER
SOBER-t16
SOBER-t32
WAKE
分组密码
分组密码操作模式
乘积密码
Feistel cipher (由Horst Feistel提出的分组密码设计模式)
Advanced Encryption Standard (分组长度为128位; NIST selection for the AES,FIPS 197,2001 -- by Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen; NESSIE selection; CRYPTREC 推荐使用)
Anubis (128-bit block)
BEAR (由流密码和Hash函数构造的分组密码,by Ross Anderson)
Blowfish (分组长度为128位; by Bruce Schneier,et al)
Camellia (分组长度为128位; NESSIE selection (NTT & Mitsubishi Electric); CRYPTREC 推荐使用)
CAST-128 (CAST5) (64 bit block; one of a series of algorithms by Carlisle Adams and Stafford Tavares,who are insistent (indeed,adamant) that the name is not due to their initials)
CAST-256 (CAST6) (128位分组长度; CAST-128的后继者,AES的竞争者之一)
CIPHERUNICORN-A (分组长度为128位; CRYPTREC 推荐使用)
CIPHERUNICORN-E (64 bit block; CRYPTREC 推荐使用 (limited))
CMEA - 在美国移动**中使用的密码,被发现有弱点.
CS-Cipher (64位分组长度)
DESzh:数字;zh-tw:数位加密标准(64位分组长度; FIPS 46-3,1976)
DEAL - 由DES演变来的一种AES候选算法
DES-X 一种DES变种,增加了密钥长度.
FEAL
GDES -一个DES派生,被设计用来提高加密速度.
Grand Cru (128位分组长度)
Hierocrypt-3 (128位分组长度; CRYPTREC 推荐使用))
Hierocrypt-L1 (64位分组长度; CRYPTREC 推荐使用 (limited))
International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) (64位分组长度--苏黎世ETH的James Massey & X Lai)
Iraqi Block Cipher (IBC)
KASUMI (64位分组长度; 基于MISTY1,被用于下一代W-CDMAcellular phone 保密)
KHAZAD (64-bit block designed by Barretto and Rijmen)
Khufu and Khafre (64位分组密码)
LOKI89/91 (64位分组密码)
LOKI97 (128位分组长度的密码,AES候选者)
Lucifer (by Tuchman et al of IBM,early 1970s; modified by NSA/NBS and released as DES)
MAGENTA (AES 候选者)
Mars (AES finalist,by Don Coppersmith et al)
MISTY1 (NESSIE selection 64-bit block; Mitsubishi Electric (Japan); CRYPTREC 推荐使用 (limited))
MISTY2 (分组长度为128位:Mitsubishi Electric (Japan))
Nimbus (64位分组)
Noekeon (分组长度为128位)
NUSH (可变分组长度(64 - 256位))
Q (分组长度为128位)
RC2 64位分组,密钥长度可变.
RC6 (可变分组长度; AES finalist,by Ron Rivest et al)
RC5 (by Ron Rivest)
SAFER (可变分组长度)
SC2000 (分组长度为128位; CRYPTREC 推荐使用)
Serpent (分组长度为128位; AES finalist by Ross Anderson,Eli Biham,Lars Knudsen)
SHACAL-1 (256-bit block)
SHACAL-2 (256-bit block cypher; NESSIE selection Gemplus (France))
Shark (grandfather of Rijndael/AES,by Daemen and Rijmen)
Square (father of Rijndael/AES,by Daemen and Rijmen)
3-Way (96 bit block by Joan Daemen)
TEA(小型加密算法)(by David Wheeler & Roger Needham)
Triple DES (by Walter Tuchman,leader of the Lucifer design team -- not all triple uses of DES increase security,Tuchmans does; CRYPTREC 推荐使用 (limited),only when used as in FIPS Pub 46-3)
Twofish (分组长度为128位; AES finalist by Bruce Schneier,et al)
XTEA (by David Wheeler & Roger Needham)
多表代替密码机密码
Enigma (二战德国转轮密码机--有很多变种,多数变种有很大的用户网络)
紫密(Purple) (二战日本外交最高等级密码机;日本海军设计)
SIGABA (二战美国密码机,由William Friedman,Frank Rowlett,等人设计)
TypeX (二战英国密码机)
Hybrid code/cypher combinations
JN-25 (二战日本海军的高级密码; 有很多变种)
Naval Cypher 3 (30年代和二战时期英国**海军的高级密码)
可视密码
有密级的 密码 (美国)
EKMS NSA的电子密钥管理系统
FNBDT NSA的加密窄带话音标准
Fortezza encryption based on portable crypto token in PC Card format
KW-26 ROMULUS 电传加密机(1960s - 1980s)
KY-57 VINSON 战术电台语音加密
SINCGARS 密码控制跳频的战术电台
STE 加密**
STU-III 较老的加密**
TEMPEST prevents compromising emanations
Type 1 products
虽然频率分析是很有效的技巧,实际上加密法通常还是有用的。不使用频率分析来破解一个信息需要知道是使用何种加密法,因此才会促成了谍报、贿赂、窃盗或背叛等行为。直到十九世纪学者们才体认到加密法的算法并非理智或实在的防护。实际上,适当的密码学机制(包含加解密法)应该保持安全,即使敌人知道了使用何种算法。对好的加密法来说,钥匙的秘密性理应足以保障资料的机密性。这个原则首先由奥古斯特·柯克霍夫(Auguste Kerckhoffs)提出并被称为柯克霍夫原则(Kerckhoffs principle)。信息论始祖克劳德·艾尔伍德·香农(Claude Shannon)重述:“敌人知道系统。”
大量的公开学术研究出现,是现代的事,这起源于一九七零年代中期,美国国家标准局(National Bureau of Standards,NBS;现称国家标准技术研究所,NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology,NIST)制定数字加密标准(DES),Diffie和Hellman提出的开创性论文,以及公开释出RSA。从那个时期开始,密码学成为通讯、电脑网络、电脑安全等上的重要工具。许多现代的密码技术的基础依赖于特定基算问题的困难度,例如因子分解问题或是离散对数问题。许多密码技术可被证明为只要特定的计算问题无法被有效的解出,那就安全。除了一个著名的例外:一次垫(one-time pad,OTP),这类证明是偶然的而非决定性的,但是是目前可用的最好的方式。
密码学算法与系统设计者不但要留意密码学历史,而且必须考虑到未来发展。例如,持续增加计算机处理速度会增进暴力攻击法(brute-force attacks)的速度。量子计算的潜在效应已经是部份密码学家的焦点。
二十世纪早期的密码学本质上主要考虑语言学上的模式。从此之后重心转移,数论。密码学同时也是工程学的分支,但却是与别不同,因为它必须面对有智能且恶意的对手,大部分其他的工程仅需处理无恶意的自然力量。检视密码学问题与量子物理间的关连也是热门的研究。
现代密码学大致可被区分为数个领域。对称钥匙密码学指的是传送方与接收方都拥有相同的钥匙。直到1976年这都还是唯一的公开加密法。
现代的研究主要在分组密码(block cipher)与流密码(stream cipher)及其应用。分组密码在某种意义上是阿伯提的多字符加密法的现代化。分组密码取用明文的一个区块和钥匙,输出相同大小的密文区块。由于信息通常比单一区块还长,因此有了各种方式将连续的区块编织在一起。DES和AES是美国联邦政府核定的分组密码标准(AES将取代DES)。尽管将从标准上废除,DES依然很流行(3DES变形仍然相当安全),被使用在非常多的应用上,从自动交易机、电子邮件到远端存取。也有许多其他的区块加密被发明、释出,品质与应用上各有不同,其中不乏被破解者。
流密码,相对于区块加密,制造一段任意长的钥匙原料,与明文依位元或字符结合,有点类似一次一密密码本(one-time pad)。输出的串流根据加密时的内部状态而定。在一些流密码上由钥匙控制状态的变化。RC4是相当有名的流密码。
密码杂凑函数(有时称作消息摘要函数,杂凑函数又称散列函数或哈希函数)不一定使用到钥匙,但和许多重要的密码算法相关。它将输入资料(通常是一整份文件)输出成较短的固定长度杂凑值,这个过程是单向的,逆向操作难以完成,而且碰撞(两个不同的输入产生相同的杂凑值)发生的机率非常小。
信息认证码或押码(Message authentication codes,MACs)很类似密码杂凑函数,除了接收方额外使用秘密钥匙来认证杂凑值。
女生英文名 要chri开头的,或n开头的。跪求,快点吧~
Chris
或者
Nancy